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> developer.com developerdirect.com htmlgoodies.com javagoodies.com jars.com intranetjournal.com javascripts.com | All Categories : Java # Appendix A # Inside the Java Virtual Machine ### CONTENTS The Class File Layout The Virtual Machine Registers Operand Stack Primitive Types Local Variables The Verifier Exception Handling Bytecodes Test Class Bytecodes Garbage Collection Looking at a virtual machine from the outside in is probably the best way to understand its workings. Incremental learning results when you move from the known to the unknown, so this section starts with the item you are most familiar with: the class file. ## The Class File The class file is similar to standard language object modules. When a C language file is compiled, the output is an object module. Multiple object modules are linked together to form an executable program. In Java, the class file replaces the object module and the Java virtual machine replaces the executable program. You'll find all the information needed to execute a class contained within the class file, as well as extra information that aids debugging and source file tracking. Remember that Java has no "header" include files, so the class file format also has to fully convey class layout and members. Parsing a class file yields a wealth of class information, not just its runtime architecture. ### Layout The overall layout uses an outer structure and a series of substructures that contain an ever-increasing amount of detail. The outer layer is described by the following structure: `ClassFile { u4 magic; u2 minor_version; u2 major_version; u2 constant_pool_count; cp_info constant_pool[constant_pool_count - 1]; u2 access_flags; u2 this_class; u2 super_class; u2 interfaces_count; u2 interfaces[interfaces_count]; u2 fields_count; field_info fields[fields_count]; u2 methods_count; method_info methods[methods_count]; u2 attributes_count; attribute_info attributes[attribute_count]; }` In addition to the generic class information (this_class, super_class, version, and so forth), there are three major substructures: constant_pool, fields, and methods. Attributes are considered minor substructures because they recur throughout the class file at various levels. Fields and methods contain their own attributes. Some individual attributes also contain their own private attribute arrays. The u2 and u4 types represent unsigned 2-byte and 4-byte quantities. This simple class will be used throughout this appendix as the basis for class file exploration. `public class test { public static int st_one; public test() { st_one = 100; } public test(int v) { st_one = v; } public native boolean getData(int data[] ); public int do_countdown() { int x = st_one; System.out.println("Performing countdown:"); while ( x- != 0 ) System.out.println(x); return st_one; } public int do_countdown(int x) { int save = x; System.out.println("Performing countdown:"); while ( x- != 0 ) System.out.println(x); return save; } }` This class doesn't actually do very much, but it does provide a basis for class file exploration. Once compiled, the outer layer of the resulting class file is as follows: `file name: test.class magic: cafebabe version: 45.3 constants: Valid indexes: 1 - 39 access: PUBLIC this class: Class: test super class: Class: java/lang/Object interfaces: none fields: [1] st_one methods: [4] <init> <init> do_countdown do_countdown attributes: SourceFile(test.java)`
> Note
> The above output was generated with a Java tool I wrote called ClassView. The full source code is available on this book's CD-ROM. ClassView parses and outputs the various features and levels of a given class file. It also provides a good basis for other class file parsers, such as disassemblers.
> The magic number of a class is 0xcafebabe. This number must appear in a class file, or the file is assumed to be invalid. The current major version is 45; the current minor version is 3. #### Access Flags Access flags are used throughout the class file to convey the access characteristics of various items. The flag itself is a collection of 11 individual bits. Table A.1 lays out the masks. Table A.1. Access flag bit values.
> Flag Value | Indication
> `ACC_PUBLIC = 0x0001` | Global visibility
> `ACC_PRIVATE = 0x0002` | Local class visibility
> `ACC_PROTECTED = 0x0004` | Subclass visibility
> `ACC_STATIC = 0x0008` | One occurrence in system (not per class)
> `ACC_FINAL = 0x0010` | No changes allowed
> `ACC_SYNCHRONIZED = 0x0020` | Access with a monitor
> `ACC_VOLATILE = 0x0040` | No local caching
> `ACC_TRANSIENT = 0x0080` | Not a persistent value
> `ACC_NATIVE = 0x0100` | Native method implementation
> `ACC_INTERFACE = 0x0200` | Class is an interface
> `ACC_ABSTRACT = 0x0400` | Class or method is abstract
> Access flags are present for a class and its fields and methods. Only a subset of values appears in any given item. Some bits apply only to fields (VOLATILE and TRANSIENT); others apply only to methods (SYNCHRONIZED and NATIVE). #### Attributes Attributes, like access flags, appear throughout a class file. They have the following form: `GenericAttribute_info { u2 attribute_name; u4 attribute_length; u1 info[attribute_length]; }` A generic structure exists to enable loaders to skip over attributes they don't understand. The actual attribute has a unique structure that can be read if the loader understands the format. As an example, the following structure specifies the format of a source file attribute: `SourceFile_attribute { u2 attribute_name; u4 attribute_length; u2 sourcefile_index; }` The name of an attribute is an index into the constant pool. You'll learn about constant pools momentarily. If a loader did not understand the source file attribute structure, it could skip the data by reading the number of bytes specified in the length parameter. For the source file attribute, the length is 2. #### Constant Pool The constant pool forms the basis for all numbers and strings within a class file. Nowhere else do you ever find strings or numbers in a class file. Any time there is a need to reference a string or number, an index into the constant pool is substituted. Consequently, the constant pool is the dominant feature of a class. The pool is even used directly within the virtual machine itself. There are twelve different types of constants: `CONSTANT_Utf8` = 1 `CONSTANT_Unicode` = 2 `CONSTANT_Integer` = 3 `CONSTANT_Float` = 4 `CONSTANT_Long` = 5 `CONSTANT_Double` = 6 `CONSTANT_Class` = 7 `CONSTANT_String` = 8 `CONSTANT_Fieldref` = 9 `CONSTANT_Methodref` = 10 `CONSTANT_InterfaceMethodref` = 11 `CONSTANT_NameAndType` = 12 Each constant structure leads off with a tag identifying the structure type. Following the type is data specific to each individual structure. The layout of each constant structure follows: `CONSTANT_Utf8_info { u1 tag; u2 length; u1 bytes[length]; } CONSTANT_Unicode_info { u1 tag; u2 length; u2 words[length]; } CONSTANT_Integer_info { u1 tag; u4 bytes; } CONSTANT_Float_info { u1 tag; u4 bytes; } CONSTANT_Long_info { u1 tag; u4 high_bytes; u4 low_bytes; } CONSTANT_Double_info { u1 tag; u4 high_bytes; u4 low_bytes; } CONSTANT_Class_info { u1 tag; u2 name_index; } CONSTANT_String_info { u1 tag; u2 string_index; } CONSTANT_Fieldref_info { u1 tag; u2 class_index; u2 name_and_type_index; } CONSTANT_Methodref_info { u1 tag; u2 class_index; u2 name_and_type_index; } CONSTANT_InterfaceMethodref_info { u1 tag; u2 class_index; u2 name_and_type_index; } CONSTANT_NameAndType_info { u1 tag; u2 name_index; u2 signature_index; }` The `CONSTANT_Utf8` contains standard ASCII text strings. These are not null-terminated because they use an explicit length parameter. Notice that most of the constants reference other constants for information. Methods, for instance, specify a class and type by providing indexes to other constant pool members. Constant pool cross-references eliminate repetition of data. The constant pool for the test class appears as follows: `String #28 -> Performing countdown: Class: java/lang/System Class: java/lang/Object Class: test Class: java/io/PrintStream Field: java/lang/System.out Ljava/io/PrintStream; Field: test.st_one I Method: java/io/PrintStream.println(I)V Method: java/lang/Object.<init>()V Method: java/io/PrintStream.println(Ljava/lang/String;)V NameAndType: println (I)V NameAndType: println (Ljava/lang/String;)V NameAndType: out Ljava/io/PrintStream; NameAndType: <init> ()V NameAndType: st_one I Utf8: [7] println Utf8: [4] (I)V Utf8: [3] ()I Utf8: [13] ConstantValue Utf8: [4] (I)I Utf8: [19] java/io/PrintStream Utf8: [10] Exceptions Utf8: [15] LineNumberTable Utf8: [1] I Utf8: [10] SourceFile Utf8: [14] LocalVariables Utf8: [4] Code Utf8: [21] Performing countdown: Utf8: [3] out Utf8: [21] (Ljava/lang/String;)V Utf8: [16] java/lang/Object Utf8: [6] <init> Utf8: [21] Ljava/io/PrintStream; Utf8: [16] java/lang/System Utf8: [12] do_countdown Utf8: [5] ([I)Z Utf8: [6] st_one Utf8: [7] getData Utf8: [9] test.java Utf8: [3] ()V Utf8: [4] test`
> Note
> The ClassView tool substitutes pool indexes with actual pool data whenever possible.
> #### Fields Field structures contain the individual data members of a class. Any class item that is not a method is placed into the fields section. The field structure looks like the following: `field_info { u2 access_flags; u2 name_index; u2 signature_index; u2 attribute_count; attribute_info attributes[attribute_count]; }` The test class contains the following field: `st_one I PUBLIC STATIC No attributes` #### Methods The method section contains all of the executable content of a class. In addition to the method name and signature, the structure contains a set of attributes. One of these attributes has the actual byte codes that the virtual machine will execute. The method structure follows: `method_info { u2 access_flags; u2 name_index; u2 signature_index; u2 attributes_count; attribute_info attributes[attribute_count]; }` The test class produces the following method section: `<init>()V PUBLIC Code(stack=1 locals=1 code=10 exceptions=none) <init>(I)V PUBLIC Code(stack=1 locals=2 code=9 exceptions=none) getData([I)Z PUBLIC NATIVE No attributes do_countdown()I PUBLIC Code(stack=2 locals=2 code=33 exceptions=none) do_countdown(I)I PUBLIC Code(stack=2 locals=3 code=29 exceptions=none)` Each method has a name and signature. You learned about signatures in Chapter 10, "Native Methods and Java." Each non-native method contains a code attribute that has the following format: `Code_attribute { u2 attribute_name; u4 attribute_length; u2 max_stack; u2 max_locals; u4 code_length; u1 code[code_length]; u2 exception_table_length; ExceptionItem exceptions[exception_table_length]; u2 attributes_count; attribute_info attributes[attribute_count]; }` Code attributes contain a private list of other attributes. Typically, these are debugging lists, such as line number information. Now that you've hit the code attribute, it's time to jump into the virtual machine. ## The Virtual Machine The Java virtual machine interprets Java byte codes that are contained in code attributes. The virtual machine is stack based. Most computer architectures perform their operations on a mixture of memory locations and registers. The Java virtual machine performs its operations exclusively on a stack. This is done primarily to support portability. No assumptions could be made about the size or number of registers in a given CPU. Intel microprocessors are especially limited in their register composition. ### Registers The virtual machine does contain some registers, but these are used for tracking the current state of the machine: `pc` register points to the next bytecode to execute `vars` register points to the local variables for a method `optop` register points to the operand stack `frame` register points to the execution environment All these registers are 32 bits wide and point into separate storage blocks. The blocks, however, can be allocated all at once because the code attribute specifies the size of the operand stack, the number of local variables, and the length of the bytecodes. ### Operand Stack Most Java byte codes work on the operand stack. For instance, to add two integers together, each integer is pushed onto the operand stack. The addition operator removes the top two integers, adds them, and places the result in its place back on the stack: `..., 4, 5 -> ..., 9`
> Note
> The operand stack notation is used throughout the remainder of this appendix. The stack reads from left to right, with the stack top on the extreme right. Ellipses indicate indeterminate data buried on the stack. The arrow indicates an operation; the data to the right of the arrow represents the stack after the operation is performed.
Each stack location is 32 bits wide. Long and doubles are 64 bits wide, so they take up two stack locations. ## Primitive Types The virtual machine provides support for nine primitive types: `byte`-single byte signed 2's complement `short`-2-byte signed 2's complement `int`-4-byte signed 2's complement `long`-8-byte signed 2's complement `float`-4-byte IEEE 754 single precision `double`-8-byte IEEE 754 double precision `char`-2-byte unsigned Unicode character `object`-4-byte reference to a Java object `returnAddress`-4-byte reference The virtual machine specification does not mandate the internal format of object references. In Sun's implementation, object references point to a Java handle consisting of two pointers. One points to the method table for the class and the other points to the object's instance data. ## Local Variables Each code attribute specifies the size of the local variables. A local variable is 32 bits wide, so long and double primitives take up two variable slots. Unlike C, all method arguments appear as local variables. The operand stack is reserved exclusively for operations. ### The Verifier When a class is loaded, it is passed through a bytecode verifier before it is executed. The verifier checks the internal consistency of the class and the validity of the code. Java uses a late binding scheme that puts the code at risk. In traditional languages, the object linker binds all of the method calls and variable accesses to specific addresses. In Java, the virtual machine doesn't perform this service until the last possible moment. As a result, it is possible for a called class to have changed since the original class was compiled. Method names or their arguments may have been altered, or the access levels may have been changed. One of the verifier's jobs is to make sure that all external object references are correct and allowed. No assumptions can be made about the origin of bytecodes. A hostile compiler could be used to create executable bytecodes that conform to the class file format, but specify illegal codes. The verifier uses a conservative four-pass verification algorithm to check bytecodes. #### Pass 1 This pass reads in the class file and ensures that it is valid. The magic number must be present and all the class data must be present with no truncation or extra data after the end of the class. Any recognized attributes must have the correct length and the constant pool must not have any unrecognized entries. #### Pass 2 The second pass involves validating class features other than the bytecodes. All methods and fields must have a valid name and signature and every class must have a super class. Signatures are not actually checked, but they must appear valid. The next pass is more specific. #### Pass 3 This is the most complex pass because the bytecodes are validated. The bytecodes are analyzed to make sure that they have the correct type and number of arguments. In addition, a data-flow analysis is performed to determine each path through the method. Each path must arrive at a given point with the same stack size and types. Each path must call methods with the proper arguments, and fields must be modified with values of the appropriate type. Class accesses are not checked in this pass. Only the return type of external functions is verified. Forcing all paths to arrive with the same stack and registers can lead the verifier to fail some otherwise legitimate bytecodes. This is a small price to pay for this high level of security. #### Pass 4 This pass loads externally referenced classes and checks that the method name and signatures match. It also validates that the current class has access rights to the external class. After complete validation, each instruction is replaced with a `_quick` alternative. These `_quick` bytecodes indicate that the class has been verified and need not be checked again. ### Exception Handling The `pc` register points to the next bytecode to execute. Whenever an exception is thrown, the method's exception table is searched for a handler. Each exception table entry has this format: `ExceptionItem { u2 start_pc; u2 end_pc; u2 handler_pc; u2 catch_type; }` If the `pc` register is within the proper range and the thrown exception is the proper type, the entry's handler code block is executed. If no handler is found, the exception propagates up to the calling method. The procedure repeats itself until either a valid handler is found or the program exits. ### Bytecodes The bytecodes can be divided into 11 major categories: Pushing constants onto the stack Moving local variable contents to and from the stack Managing arrays Generic stack instructions (dup, swap, pop & nop) Arithmetic and logical instructions Conversion instructions Control transfer and function return Manipulating object fields Method invocation Miscellaneous operations Monitors Each bytecode has a unique tag and is followed by a fixed number of additional arguments. Notice that there is no way to work directly with class fields or local variables. They must be moved to the operand stack before any operations can be performed on the contents. Generally, there are multiple formats for each individual operation. The addition operation provides a good example. There are actually four forms of addition: `iadd`, `ladd`, `fadd`, and `dadd`. Each type assumes the top two stack items are of the correct format: integers, longs, floats, or doubles. #### Pushing Constants Onto the Stack Java uses the following instructions for moving object data and local variables to the operand stack: ##### Push One-Byte Signed Integer `bipush=16 byte1 Stack: ... -> ..., byte1` ##### Push Two-Byte Signed Integer `sipush=17 byte1 byte2 Stack: ... -> ..., word1` ##### Push Item From the Constant Pool (8-bit index) `ldc1=18 indexbyte1 Stack: ... -> ..., item` ##### Push Item from the Constant Pool (16-bit index) `ldc2=19 indexbyte1 indexbyte2 Stack: ... -> ..., item` ##### Push Long or Double from Constant Pool (16-bit index) `ldc2w=20 indexbyte1 indexbyte2 Stack: ... -> ..., word1, word2` ##### Push Null Object `aconst_null=1 Stack: ... -> ..., null` ##### Push Integer Constant -1 `iconst_m1=2 Stack: ... -> ..., -1` ##### Push Integer Constants `iconst_0=3 Stack: ... -> ..., 0 iconst_1=4 Stack: ... -> ..., 1 iconst_2=5 Stack: ... -> ..., 2 iconst_3=6 Stack: ... -> ..., 3 iconst_4=7 Stack: ... -> ..., 4 iconst_5=8 Stack: ... -> ..., 5` ##### Push Long Constant `lconst_0=9 Stack: ... -> ..., 0, 0 lconst_1=10 Stack: ... -> ..., 0, 1` ##### Push Float Constants `fconst_0=11 Stack: ... -> ..., 0 fconst_1=12 Stack: ... -> ..., 1 fconst_2=13 Stack: ... -> ..., 2` ##### Push Double Constants `dconst_0=14 Stack: ... -> ..., 0, 0 dconst_1=15 Stack: ... -> ..., 0, 1` #### Accessing Local Variables The most commonly referenced local variables are at the first four offsets from the `vars` register. Because of this, Java provides single byte instructions to access these variables for both reading and writing. A two-byte instruction is needed to reference variables greater than 4 deep. The variable at location zero is the class pointer itself (the `this` pointer). ##### Load Integer from Local Variable `iload=21 vindex Stack: ... -> ..., contents of varaible at vars[vindex] iload_o=26 Stack: ... -> ..., contents of variable at vars[0] iload_1=27 Stack: ... -> ..., contents of variable at vars[1] iload_2=28 Stack: ... -> ..., contents of variable at vars[2] iload_3=29 Stack: ... -> ..., contents of variable at vars[3]` ##### Load Long Integer from Local Variable `lload=22 vindex Stack: .. -> ..., word1, word2 from vars[vindex] & vars[vindex+1] lload_0=30 Stack: .. -> ..., word1, word2 from vars[0] & vars[1] lload_1=31 Stack: .. -> ..., word1, word2 from vars[1] & vars[2] lload_2=32 Stack: .. -> ..., word1, word2 from vars[2] & vars[3] lload_3=33 Stack: .. -> ..., word1, word2 from vars[3] & vars[4]` ##### Load Float from Local Variable `fload=23 vindex Stack: ... -> ..., contents from vars[vindex] fload_0=34 Stack: ... -> ..., contents from vars[0] fload_1=35 Stack: ... -> ..., contents from vars[1] fload_2=36 Stack: ... -> ..., contents from vars[2] fload_3=37 Stack: ... -> ..., contents from vars[3]` ##### Load Double from Local Variable `dload=24 vindex Stack: ... -> ..., word1, word2 from vars[vindex] & vars[vindex+1] dload_0=38 Stack: ... -> ..., word1, word2 from vars[0] & vars[1] dload_1=39 Stack: ... -> ..., word1, word2 from vars[1] & vars[2] dload_2=40 Stack: ... -> ..., word1, word2 from vars[2] & vars[3] dload_3=41 Stack: ... -> ..., word1, word2 from vars[3] & vars[4]` ##### Load Object from Local Variable `aload=25 vindex Stack: ... -> ..., object from vars[vindex] aload_0=42 Stack: ... -> ..., object from vars[0] aload_1=43 Stack: ... -> ..., object from vars[1] aload_2=44 Stack: ... -> ..., object from vars[2] aload_3=45 Stack: ... -> ..., object from vars[3]` ##### Store Integer into Local Variable `istore=54 vindex Stack: ..., INT -> ... into vars[vindex] istore_0=59 Stack: ..., INT -> ... into vars[0] istore_1=60 Stack: ..., INT -> ... into vars[1] istore_2=61 Stack: ..., INT -> ... into vars[2] istore_3=62 Stack: ..., INT -> ... into vars[3]` ##### Store Long Integer into Local Variable `lstore=55 vindex Stack: ..., word1, word2 -> ... into vars[vindex] & vars[vindex+1] lstore_0=63 Stack: ..., word1, word2 -> ... into vars[0] & vars[1] lstore_1=64 Stack: ..., word1, word2 -> ... into vars[1] & vars[2] lstore_2=65 Stack: ..., word1, word2 -> ... into vars[2] & vars[3] lstore_3=66 Stack: ..., word1, word2 -> ... into vars[3] & vars[4]` ##### Store Float into Local Variable `fstore=56 vindex Stack: ..., FLOAT -> ... into vars[vindex] fstore_0=67 Stack: ..., FLOAT -> ... into vars[0] fstore_1=68 Stack: ..., FLOAT -> ... into vars[1] fstore_2=69 Stack: ..., FLOAT -> ... into vars[2] fstore_3=70 Stack: ..., FLOAT -> ... into vars[3]` ##### Store Double into Local Variable `dstore=57 vindex Stack: ..., word1, word2 -> ... into vars[vindex] & vars[vindex+1] dstore_0=71 Stack: ..., word1, word2 -> ... into vars[0] & vars[1] dstore_1=72 Stack: ..., word1, word2 -> ... into vars[1] & vars[2] dstore_2=73 Stack: ..., word1, word2 -> ... into vars[2] & vars[3] dstore_3=74 Stack: ..., word1, word2 -> ... into vars[3] & vars[4]` ##### Store Object into Local Variable `istore=58 vindex Stack: ..., OBJ -> ... into vars[vindex] istore_0=75 Stack: ..., OBJ -> ... into vars[0] istore_1=76 Stack: ..., OBJ -> ... into vars[1] istore_2=77 Stack: ..., OBJ -> ... into vars[2] istore_3=78 Stack: ..., OBJ -> ... into vars[3]` ##### Increment Local Variable This applies only to integers. `iinc=132 vindex constant Stack: ... -> ... vars[vindex] += constant` #### Managing Arrays Arrays are treated as objects, but as you learned in Chapter 10, they don't use a method table pointer. Because of this uniqueness, arrays have special bytecodes to create and access them. ##### Allocate a New Array `newarray=188 type Stack: ..., size -> ..., OBJ` ##### Allocate a New Array of Objects `anewarray=189 classindex1 classindex2 Stack: ..., size -> ..., OBJ` ##### Allocate a New Multi-Dimensional Array `newarray=197 indexbyte1 indexbyte1 indexbyte2 Stack: ..., size1, size2, etc -> ..., OBJ` ##### Get the Array Length `arraylength=190 Stack: ..., OBJ -> ..., length` ##### Load Primitives from the Array `iaload=46 Stack: ..., OBJ, index -> ..., INT laload=47 Stack: ..., OBJ, index -> ..., LONG1, LONG2 faload=48 Stack: ..., OBJ, index -> ..., FLOAT daload=49 Stack: ..., OBJ, index -> ..., DOUBLE1, DOUBLE2 aaload=50 Stack: ..., OBJ, index -> ..., OBJ baload=51 Stack: ..., OBJ, index -> ..., BYTE caload=52 Stack: ..., OBJ, index -> ..., CHAR saload=53 Stack: ..., OBJ, index -> ..., SHORT` ##### Store Primitives into the Array `iastore-79 Stack: ..., OBJ, index, INT -> ... lastore=80 Stack: ..., OBJ, index, LONG1, LONG2 -> ... fastore=81 Stack: ..., OBJ, index, FLOAT -> ... dastore=82 Stack: ..., OBJ, index, DOUBLE1, DOUBLE2 -> ... aastore=83 Stack: ..., OBJ, index, OBJ -> ... bastore=84 Stack: ..., OBJ, index, BYTE -> ... castore=85 Stack: ..., OBJ, index, CHAR -> ... sastore=86 Stack: ..., OBJ, index, SHORT -> ...` #### Generic Stack Instructions These are basic operations that alter the stack: ##### Do Nothing `nop=0 Stack: ... -> ...` ##### Pop Stack Values `pop=87 Stack: ..., VAL -> ... pop2=88 Stack: ..., VAL1, VAL2 -> ...` ##### Duplicate Stack Values and Possibly Insert Below Stack Top `dup=89 Stack: ..., V -> ..., V, V dup2=92 Stack: ..., V1, V2 -> ..., V1, V2, V1, V2 dup_x1=90 Stack: ..., V1, V2 -> ..., V2, V1, V2 dup2_x1=93 Stack: ..., V1, V2, V3 -> ..., V2, V3, V1, V2, V3 dup_x2=91 Stack: ..., V1, V2, V3 -> ..., V3, V1, V2, V3 dup2_x2=94 Stack: ..., V1, V2, V3, V4 -> ..., V3, V4, V1, V2, V3, V4` ##### Swap Two-Stack Items `swap=95 Stack: ..., V1, V2 -> ..., V2, V1` #### Arithmetic and Logical Instructions All the arithmetic operations operate on four possible types: integer, long, float, or double. Logical instructions operate only on integer and long types. ##### Addition `iadd=96 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> ..., INT1+INT2 ladd=97 Stack: ..., L1_1, L1_2, L2_1, L2_2 -> ..., L1+L2 (high), L1+L2 (low) fadd=98 Stack: ..., FLOAT1, FLOAT2 -> ..., FLOAT1+FLOAT2 dadd=99 Stack: ..., D1_1, D1_2, D2_1, D2_2 -> ..., D1+D2 (high), D1+D2 (low)` ##### Subtraction `isub=100 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> ..., INT1-INT2 lsub=101 Stack: ..., L1_1, L1_2, L2_1, L2_2 -> ..., L1-L2 (high), L1-L2 (low) fsub=102 Stack: ..., FLOAT1, FLOAT2 -> ..., FLOAT1-FLOAT2 dsub=103 Stack: ..., D1_1, D1_2, D2_1, D2_2 -> ..., D1-D2 (high), D1-D2 (low)` ##### Multiplication `imul=104 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> ..., INT1*INT2 lmul=105 Stack: ..., L1_1, L1_2, L2_1, L2_2 -> ..., L1*L2 (high), L1*L2 (low) fmul=106 Stack: ..., FLOAT1, FLOAT2 -> ..., FLOAT1*FLOAT2 dmul=107 Stack: ..., D1_1, D1_2, D2_1, D2_2 -> ..., D1*D2 (high), D1*D2 (low)` ##### Division `idiv=108 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> ..., INT1/INT2 ldiv=109 Stack: ..., L1_1, L1_2, L2_1, L2_2 -> ..., L1/L2 (high), L1/L2 (low) fdiv=110 Stack: ..., FLOAT1, FLOAT2 -> ..., FLOAT1/FLOAT2 ddiv=111 Stack: ..., D1_1, D1_2, D2_1, D2_2 -> ..., D1/D2 (high), D1/D2 (low)` ##### Remainder `irem=112 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> ..., INT1%INT2 lrem=113 Stack: ..., L1_1, L1_2, L2_1, L2_2 -> ..., L1%L2 (high), L1%L2 (low) frem=114 Stack: ..., FLOAT1, FLOAT2 -> ..., FLOAT1%FLOAT2 drem=115 Stack: ..., D1_1, D1_2, D2_1, D2_2 -> ..., D1%D2 (high), D1%D2 (low)` ##### Negation `ineg=116 Stack: ..., INT -> ..., -INT lneg=117 Stack: ..., LONG1, LONG2 -> ..., -LONG1, -LONG2 fneg=118 Stack: ..., FLOAT -> ..., -FLOAT dneg=119 Stack: ..., DOUBLE1, DOUBLE2 -> ..., -DOUBLE1, -DOUBLE2` ##### Integer Logical Instructions `>>>` denotes an unsigned right shift. `ishl=120 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> INT1<<(INT2 & 0x1f) ishr=122 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> INT1>>(INT2 & 0x1f) iushr=124 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> INT1>>>(INT2 & 0x1f)` ##### Long Integer Logical Instructions `>>>` denotes an unsigned right shift. `lshl=121 Stack: ..., L1, L2, INT -> L1<<(INT & 0x3f), L2<<(INT & 0x3f) lshr=123 Stack: ..., L1, L2, INT -> INT1>>(INT & 0x3f), L2>>(INT & 0x03) lushr=125 Stack: ..., L1, L2, INT -> INT1>>>(INT & 0x3f), L2>>>(INT & 0x3f)` ##### Integer Boolean Operations `iand=126 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> ..., INT1&INT2 ior=128 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> ..., INT1|INT2 ixor=130 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> ..., INT1^INT2` ##### Long Integer Boolean Operations `land=127 Stack: ..., L1_1, L1_2, L2_1, L2_2 -> ..., L1_1&L2_1, L1_2&L2_2 lor=129 Stack: ..., L1_1, L1_2, L2_1, L2_2 -> ..., L1_1|L2_1, L1_2|L2_2 lxor=131 Stack: ..., L1_1, L1_2, L2_1, L2_2 -> ..., L1_1^L2_1. L1_2^L2_2` #### Conversion Instructions Because most of the previous bytecodes expect the stack to contain a homogenous set of operands, Java uses conversion functions. In code, you can add a float and an integer, but Java will first convert the integer to a float type before performing the addition. ##### Integer Conversions `i2l=133 Stack: .., INT -> ..., LONG1, LONG2 i2f=134 Stack: .., INT -> ..., FLOAT i2d=135 Stack: .., INT -> ..., DOUBLE1, DOUBLE2 int2byte=145 Stack: .., INT -> ..., BYTE int2char=146 Stack: .., INT -> ..., CHAR int2short=147 Stack: .., INT -> ..., SHORT` ##### Long Integer Conversions `l2i=136 Stack: .., LONG1, LONG2 -> ..., INT l2f=137 Stack: .., LONG1, LONG2 -> ..., FLOAT l2d=138 Stack: .., LONG1, LONG2 -> ..., DOUBLE1, DOUBLE2` ##### Float Conversions `f2i=139 Stack: .., FLOAT -> ..., INT f2l=140 Stack: .., FLOAT -> ..., LONG1, LONG2 f2d=141 Stack: .., FLOAT -> ..., DOUBLE1, DOUBLE2` ##### Double Conversions `d2i=142 Stack: .., DOUBLE1, DOUBLE2 -> ..., INT d2l=143 Stack: .., DOUBLE1, DOUBLE2 -> ..., LONG1, LONG2 d2f=144 Stack: .., DOUBLE1, DOUBLE2 -> ..., FLOAT` #### Control Transfer and Function Return All branch indexes are signed 16-bit offsets from the current `pc` register. ##### Comparisons with Zero `ifeq=153 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., INT -> ... ifne=154 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., INT -> ... iflt=155 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., INT -> ... ifge=156 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., INT -> ... ifgt=157 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., INT -> ... ifle=158 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., INT -> ...` ##### Comparison with Null `ifnull=198 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., OBJ -> ... ifnonnull=199 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., OBJ -> ...` ##### Compare Two Integers `if_icmpeq=159 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> ... if_icmpne=160 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> ... if_icmplt=161 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> ... if_icmpge=162 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> ... if_icmpgt=163 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> ... if_icmple=164 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., INT1, INT2 -> ...` ##### Compare Two Long Integers `lcmp=148 Stack: ..., L1_1, L1_2, L2_1, L2_2 -> ..., INT (One of [-1, 0, 1])` ##### Compare Two Floats l->-1 on NaN, g->1 on NaN. `fcmpl=149 Stack: ..., FLOAT1, FLOAT2 -> ..., INT (One of [-1, 0, 1]) fcmpg=150 Stack: ..., FLOAT1, FLOAT2 -> ..., INT (One of [-1, 0, 1])` ##### Compare Two Doubles l->-1 on NaN, g->1 on NaN. `dcmpl=151 Stack: ..., D1_1, D1_2, D2_1, D2_2 -> ..., INT (One of [-1, 0, 1]) dcmpg=152 Stack: ..., D1_1, D1_2, D2_1, D2_2 -> ..., INT (One of [-1, 0, 1])` ##### Compare Two Objects `if_acmpeq=165 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., OBJ1, OBJ2 -> ... if_acmpne=166 branch1 branch2 Stack: ..., OBJ1, OBJ2 -> ...` ##### Unconditional Branching 16-bit and 32-bit branching `goto=167 branch1 branch2 Stack: ... -> ... goto_w=200 branch1 branch2 branch3 branch4 Stack: ... -> ...` ##### Jump Subroutine 16-bit and 32-bit jumps `jsr=168 branch1 branch2 Stack: ... -> ..., returnAddress jsr_w=201 branch1 branch2 branch3 branch4 Stack: ... -> ..., returnAddress` ##### Return from Subroutine The return address is retrieved from a local variable, not the stack. `ret=169 vindex Stack: ... -> ... (returnAddress <- vars[vindex]) ret_w=209 vindex1 vindex2 Stack: ... -> ... (returnAddress <- vars[vindex])` ##### Returning Primitives The current stack frame is destroyed. The top primitive is pushed onto the caller's operand stack. `ireturn=172 Stack: ..., INT -> [destroyed] lreturn=173 Stack: ..., LONG1, LONG2 -> [destroyed] freturn=174 Stack: ..., FLOAT -> [destroyed] dreturn=175 Stack: ..., DOUBLE1, DOUBLE2 -> [destroyed] areturn=176 Stack: ..., OBJ -> [destroyed] return=177 Stack: ... -> [destroyed]` ##### Calling the Breakpoint Handler `breakpoint=202 Stack: ..., -> ...` #### Manipulating Object Fields Construct a 16-bit index into the constant pool to retrieve the class and field name, then resolve these names to determine the field offset and width. Use the object reference on the stack as the target. The value will be 32 or 64 bits, depending on the field information in the constant pool. `Getstatic=178 index1 index2 Stack: ..., -> ..., VAL Putstatic=179 index1 index2 Stack: ..., VAL -> ... Getfield=180 index1 index2 Stack: ..., OBJ -> ..., VAL Putfield=181 index1 index2 Stack: ..., OBJ, VAL -> ...` #### Method Invocation There are four types of method invocation: `invokevirtual=182`-Normal method dispatch in Java. Use the index bytes to create a 16-bit index into the constant table of the current class. Extract the method name and signature. Search the method table of the stack object to determine the method address. Use the method signature to remove the method arguments from the operand stack and transfer them to the new method's local variables. `invokenonvirtual=183`-Used when a method is called with the super keyword. Use the index bytes to create a 16-bit index into the constant pool of the current class. Extract the method name and signature. Search the named class's method table to determine the method address. Extract the object and arguments and place them in the new method's local variables. `invokestatic=184`-Used to call static methods. Create a 16-bit index into the current class's constant pool. Extract the method and search the named class's method table for the address. Transfer the arguments as before. There is no object to pass. `invokeinterface=185`-Invoke an interface function. Again, a 16-bit index is created to find the method name and signature. This time, however, the number of arguments is determined from the bytecodes, not the signature. `virtual index1 index2 Stack: ..., OBJ, [arg1, [arg2, ...]] -> ... nonvirtual index1 index2 Stack: ..., OBJ, [arg1, [arg2, ...]] -> ... static index1 index2 Stack: ..., [arg1, [arg2, ...]] -> ... interface index1 index2 nargs resv Stack: ..., OBJ, [arg1, [arg2, ...]] -> ...` #### Miscellaneous Operations These instructions don't fall under any other heading; they deal with generic object operations, such as creation and casting. ##### Throw Exception `athrow=191 Stack: ..., OBJ -> [undefined]` ##### Create a New Object `new=187 index1 index2 Stack: ... -> ..., OBJ` ##### Check a Cast Operation `checkcast=192 index1 index2 Stack: ..., OBJ -> ..., OBJ` ##### Instanceof `instanceof=193 index1 index2 Stack: ..., OBJ -> ... INT (1 or 0)` #### Monitors Monitor instructions are used for synchronization. ##### Enter a Monitored Region of Code `monitorenter=194 Stack: ..., OBJ -> ...` ##### Exit a Monitored Region of Code `monitorexit=195 Stack: ..., OBJ -> ...` ### Test Class Bytecodes Sun supplies a tool, `javap`, that enables you to disassemble and view the bytecodes of a class. If the -c option is passed to `javap`, a listing of bytecodes is produced. These are the test class's bytecodes: `Compiled from test.java public class test extends java.lang.Object { public static int st_one; public test(); public test(int); public native boolean getData(int []); public int do_countdown(); public int do_countdown(int); Method test() 0 aload_0 1 invokenonvirtual #9 <Method java.lang.Object.<init>()V> 4 bipush 100 6 putstatic #7 <Field test.st_one I> 9 return Method test(int) 0 aload_0 1 invokenonvirtual #9 <Method java.lang.Object.<init>()V> 4 iload_1 5 putstatic #7 <Field test.st_one I> 8 return Method int do_countdown() 0 getstatic #7 <Field test.st_one I> 3 istore_1 4 getstatic #6 <Field java.lang.System.out Ljava/io/PrintStream;> 7 ldc #1 <String "Performing countdown:"> 9 invokevirtual #10 <Method java.io.PrintStream.println(Ljava/lang/String;)V> 12 goto 22 15 getstatic #6 <Field java.lang.System.out Ljava/io/PrintStream;> 18 iload_1 19 invokevirtual #8 <Method java.io.PrintStream.println(I)V> 22 iload_1 23 iinc 1 -1 26 ifne 15 29 getstatic #7 <Field test.st_one I> 32 ireturn Method int do_countdown(int) 0 iload_1 1 istore_2 2 getstatic #6 <Field java.lang.System.out Ljava/io/PrintStream;> 5 ldc #1 <String "Performing countdown:"> 7 invokevirtual #10 <Method java.io.PrintStream.println(Ljava/lang/String;)V> 10 goto 20 13 getstatic #6 <Field java.lang.System.out Ljava/io/PrintStream;> 16 iload_1 17 invokevirtual #8 <Method java.io.PrintStream.println(I)V> 20 iload_1 21 iinc 1 -1 24 ifne 13 27 iload_2 28 ireturn }` The left-hand column displays the offset of the instruction. `Javap` automatically converts jump displacements to actual offsets. In addition, it looks up constant pool references in order to output the corresponding strings. ## Garbage Collection Java uses a multitiered security mechanism. The bytecode verifier provides the lowest layer of security. Above the verifier, the security manager is the next sentry. In addition to these two explicit checks, there are a number of language features that provide security as well. Chief among these is the garbage collector. Failing to free memory blocks or file handles is a common bug in most modern programs. The problem quickly escalates until the system crashes in some unforeseen manner. Java, like Smalltalk before it, uses implicit garbage collection to solve the problem. The virtual machine spec does not mandate a particular type of garbage collection; it requires only that some type be used. In Sun's runtime, a mark and sweep algorithm is used. This enables the garbage collector to run incrementally in the background. 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