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| Chapter 7 Basic Utility Classes |

## 7.7 Internationalization

In order to deliver on the promise "Write once, run anywhere," the engineers at Java designed the famous Java Virtual Machine. True, your program will run anywhere there is a JVM, but what about users in other countries? Will they have to know English to use your application? Java 1.1 answers that question with a resounding "no," backed up by various classes that are designed to make it easy for you to write a "global" application. In this section we'll talk about the concepts of internationalization and the classes that support them.

### java.util.Locale

Internationalization programming revolves around the `Locale` class. The class itself is very simple; it encapsulates a country code, a language code, and a rarely used variant code. Commonly used languages and countries are defined as constants in the `Locale` class. (It's ironic that these names are all in English.) You can retrieve the codes or readable names, as follows:

    Locale l = Locale.ITALIAN;
    System.out.println(l.getCountry()); // IT
    System.out.println(l.getDisplayCountry());  // Italy
    System.out.println(l.getLanguage());    // it
    System.out.println(l.getDisplayLanguage()); // Italian

The country codes comply with ISO 639. A complete list of country codes is at http://www.ics.uci.edu/pub/ietf/http/related/iso639.txt. The language codes comply with ISO 3166. A complete list of language codes is at http://www.chemie.fu-berlin.de/diverse/doc/ISO_3166.html. There is no official set of variant codes; they are designated as vendor-specific or platform-specific.

Various classes throughout the Java API use a `Locale` to decide how to represent themselves. We have already seen how the `DateFormat` class uses `Locale`s to determine how to format and parse strings.

### Resource Bundles

If you're writing an internationalized program, you want all the text that is displayed by your application to be in the correct language. Given what you have just learned about `Locale`, you could print out different messages by testing the `Locale`. This gets cumbersome quickly, however, because the messages for all `Locale`s are embedded in your source code. `ResourceBundle` and its subclasses offer a cleaner, more flexible solution.

A `ResourceBundle` is a collection of objects that your application can access by name, much like a `Hashtable` with `String` keys. The same `ResourceBundle` may be defined for many different `Locale`s. To get a particular `ResourceBundle`, call the factory method `ResourceBundle.getBundle()`, which accepts the name of a `ResourceBundle` and a `Locale`. The following example gets a `ResourceBundle` for two `Locale`s, retrieves a string message from it, and prints the message. We'll define the `ResourceBundle`s later to make this example work.

    import java.util.*;
    public class Hello {
      public static void main(String[] args) {
        ResourceBundle bun;
        bun = ResourceBundle.getBundle("Message", Locale.ITALY);
        System.out.println(bun.getString("HelloMessage"));
        bun = ResourceBundle.getBundle("Message", Locale.US);
        System.out.println(bun.getString("HelloMessage"));
      }
    }

The `getBundle()` method throws the runtime exception `MissingResourceException` if an appropriate `ResourceBundle` cannot be located.

`Locale`s are defined in three ways. They can be stand-alone classes, in which case they will either be subclasses of `ListResourceBundle` or direct subclasses of `ResourceBundle`. They can also be defined by a property file, in which case they will be represented at run-time by a `PropertyResourceBundle` object. When you call `ResourceBundle.getBundle()`, either a matching class is returned or an instance of `PropertyResourceBundle` corresponding to a matching property file. The algorithm used by `getBundle()` is based on appending the country and language codes of the requested `Locale` to the name of the resource. Specifically, it searches for resources using this order:

`name_language_country_variant`
`name_language_country`
`name_language`
`name`
`name_default-language_default-country_default-variant`
`name_default-language_default-country`
`name_default-language`

In the example above, when we try to get the `ResourceBundle` named `Message`, specific to `Locale.ITALY`, it searches for the following names (note that there are no variant codes in the `Locale`s we are using):

`Message_it_IT`
`Message_it`
`Message`
`Message_en_US`
`Message_en`

Let's define the `Message_it_IT` `ResourceBundle` now, using a subclass of `ListResourceBundle`.

    import java.util.*;
    public class Message_it_IT extends ListResourceBundle {
      public Object[][] getContents() {
        return contents;
      }

      static final Object[][] contents = {
        {"HelloMessage", "Buon giorno, world!"},
        {"OtherMessage", "Ciao."},
      };
    }

`ListResourceBundle` makes it easy to define a `ResourceBundle` class; all we have to do is override the `getContents()` method.

Now let's define a `ResourceBundle` for `Locale.US`. This time, we'll make a property file. Save the following data in a file called Message_en_US.properties:

    HelloMessage=Hello, world!
    OtherMessage=Bye.

So what happens if somebody runs your program in `Locale.FRANCE`, and there is no `ResourceBundle` defined for that `Locale`? To avoid a run-time `MissingResourceException`, it's a good idea to define a default `ResourceBundle`. So in our example, you could change the name of the property file to `Message.properties`. That way, if a language-specific or country-specific `ResourceBundle` cannot be found, your application can still run.

### java.text

The `java.text` package includes, among other things, a set of classes designed for generating and parsing string representations of objects. We have already seen one of these classes, `DateFormat`. In this section we'll talk about the other format classes, `NumberFormat`, `ChoiceFormat`, and `MessageFormat`.

The `NumberFormat` class can be used to format and parse currency, percents, or plain old numbers. Like `DateFormat`, `NumberFormat` is an abstract class. However, it has several useful factory methods. For example, to generate currency strings, use `getCurrencyInstance()`:

    double salary = 1234.56;
    String here =
        NumberFormat.getCurrencyInstance().format(salary);
        // $1,234.56
    String italy =
        NumberFormat.getCurrencyInstance(Locale.ITALY).format(salary);
        // L 1.234,56

The first statement generates an American salary, with a dollar sign, a comma to separate thousands, and a period as a decimal point. The second statement presents the same string in Italian, with a lire sign, a period to separate thousands, and a comma as a decimal point. Remember that the `NumberFormat` worries about format only; it doesn't attempt to do currency conversion. (Among other things, that would require access to a dynamically updated table and exchange rates: a good opportunity for a Java Bean, but too much to ask of a simple formatter.)

Likewise, `getPercentInstance()` returns a formatter you can use for generating and parsing percents. If you do not specify a `Locale` when calling a `getInstance()` method, the default `Locale` is used.

    NumberFormat pf = NumberFormat.getPercentInstance();
    System.out.println(pf.format(progress)); // 44%
    try {
      System.out.println(pf.parse("77.2%")); // 0.772
    }
    catch (ParseException e) {}

And if you just want to generate and parse plain old numbers, use a `NumberFormat` returned by `getInstance()` or its equivalent, `getNumberInstance()`.

    NumberFormat guiseppe = NumberFormat.getInstance(Locale.ITALY);
    NumberFormat joe = NumberFormat.getInstance();  // defaults to Locale.US
    try {
      double theValue = guiseppe.parse("34.663,252").doubleValue();
      System.out.println(joe.format(theValue)); // 34,663.252
    }
    catch (ParseException e) {}

We use `guiseppe` to parse a number in Italian format (periods separate thousands, comma as the decimal point). The return type of `parse()` is `Number`, so we use the `doubleValue()` method to retrieve the value of the `Number` as a `double`. Then we use `joe` to format the number correctly for the default (US) locale.

Table 7.8 summarizes the factory methods for text formatters in the `java.text` package.

Table 7.9: Format Factory Methods
Factory Method
`DateFormat.getDateInstance()`
`DateFormat.getDateInstance(int style)`
`DateFormat.getDateInstance(int style, Locale aLocale)`
`DateFormat.getDateTimeInstance()`
`DateFormat.getDateTimeInstance(int dateStyle, int timeStyle)`
`DateFormat.getDateTimeInstance(int dateStyle, int timeStyle, Locale aLocale)`
`DateFormat.getInstance()`
`DateFormat.getTimeInstance()`
`DateFormat.getTimeInstance(int style)`
`DateFormat.getTimeInstance(int style, Locale aLocale)`
`NumberFormat.getCurrencyInstance()`
`NumberFormat.getCurrencyInstance(Locale inLocale)`
`NumberFormat.getInstance()`
`NumberFormat.getInstance(Locale inLocale)`
`NumberFormat.getNumberInstance()`
`NumberFormat.getNumberInstance(Locale inLocale)`
`NumberFormat.getPercentInstance()`
`NumberFormat.getPercentInstance(Locale inLocale)`

Thus far we've seen how to format dates and numbers as text. Now we'll take a look at a class, `ChoiceFormat`, that maps numerical ranges to text. `ChoiceFormat` is constructed by specifying the numerical ranges and the strings that correspond to them. One constructor accepts an array of `double`s and an array of `String`s, where each string corresponds to the range running from the matching number up through the next number:

    double[] limits = {0, 20, 40};
    String[] labels = {"young", "less young", "old"};
    ChoiceFormat cf = new ChoiceFormat(limits, labels);
    System.out.println(cf.format(12)); // young
    System.out.println(cf.format(26)); // less young

You can specify both the limits and the labels using a special string in another `ChoiceFormat` constructor:

    ChoiceFormat cf = new ChoiceFormat("0#young|20#less young|40#old");
    System.out.println(cf.format(40)); // old
    System.out.println(cf.format(50)); // old

The limit and value pairs are separated by pipe characters (|; also known as "vertical bar"), while the number sign serves to separate each limit from its corresponding value.

To complete our discussion of the formatting classes, we'll take a look at another class, `MessageFormat`, that helps you construct human-readable messages. To construct a `MessageFormat`, pass it a pattern string. A pattern string is a lot like the string you feed to `printf()` in C, although the syntax is different. Arguments are delineated by curly brackets, and may include information about how they should be formatted. Each argument consists of a number, an optional type, and an optional style. These are summarized in table Table 7.9.

Table 7.10: `MessageFormat` arguments
Type | Styles
--- | ---
choice | pattern
date | short, medium, long, full, pattern
number | integer, percent, currency, pattern
time | short, medium, long, full, pattern

Let's use an example to clarify all of this.

    MessageFormat mf = new MessageFormat("You have {0} messages.");
    Object[] arguments = {"no"};
    System.out.println(mf.format(arguments)); // You have no messages.

We start by constructing a `MessageFormat` object; the argument to the constructor is the pattern on which messages will be based. The special incantation {0} means "in this position, substitute element 0 from the array passed as an argument to the `format()` method." Thus, we construct a `MessageFormat` object with a pattern, which is a template on which messages are based. When we generate a message, by calling `format()`, we pass in values to fill the blank spaces in the template. In this case, we pass the array `arguments[]` to `mf.format`; this substitutes `arguments[0]`, yielding the result "You have no messages."

Let's try this example again, except we'll show how to format a number and a date instead of a string argument.

    MessageFormat mf = new MessageFormat(
        "You have {0, number, integer} messages on {1, date, long}.");
    Object[] arguments = {new Integer(93), new Date()};
    System.out.println(mf.format(arguments));
        // You have 93 messages on April 10, 1997.

In this example, we need to fill in two spaces in the template, and therefore need two elements in the `arguments[]` array. Element 0 must be a number, and is formatted as an integer. Element 1 must be a `Date`, and will be printed in the long format. When we call `format()`, the `arguments[]` array supplies these two values.

This is still sloppy. What if there is only one message? To make this grammatically correct, we can embed a `ChoiceFormat`-style pattern string in our `MessageFormat` pattern string.

    MessageFormat mf = new MessageFormat(
        "You have {0, number, integer} message{0, choice, 0#s|1#|2#s}.");
    Object[] arguments = {new Integer(1)};
    System.out.println(mf.format(arguments)); // You have 1 message.

In this case, we use element 0 of `arguments[]` twice: once to supply the number of messages, and once to provide input to the `ChoiceFormat` pattern. The pattern says to add an "s" if argument 0 has the value zero, or is two or more.

Finally, a few words on how to be clever. If you want to write international programs, you can use resource bundles to supply the strings for your `MessageFormat` objects. This way, you can automatically format messages that are in the appropriate language with dates and other language-dependent fields handled appropriately.

In this context, it's helpful to realize that messages don't need to read elements from the array in order. In English, you would say "Disk C has 123 files"; in some other language, you might say "123 files are on Disk C." You could implement both messages with the same set of arguments:

    MessageFormat m1 = new MessageFormat(
        "Disk {0} has {1, number, integer} files.");
    MessageFormat m2 = new MessageFormat(
        "{1, number, integer} files are on disk {0}.");
    Object[] arguments = {"C", new Integer(123)};

In real life, you'd only use a single `MessageFormat` object, initialized with a string taken from a resource bundle.

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