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| Chapter 8 |

# 8. Input/Output Facilities

Contents:
Streams
Files
Serialization
Data compression

In this chapter, we'll continue our exploration of the Java API by looking at many of the classes in the `java.io` package. These classes support a number of forms of input and output; I expect you'll use them often in your Java applications. Figure 8.1 shows the class hierarchy of the `java.io` package.

We'll start by looking at the stream classes in `java.io`; these classes are all subclasses of the basic `InputStream`, `OutputStream`, `Reader`, and `Writer` classes. Then we'll examine the `File` class and discuss how you can interact with the filesystem using classes in `java.io`. Finally, we'll take a quick look at the data compression classes provided in `java.util.zip`.

## 8.1 Streams

All fundamental I/O in Java is based on streams. A stream represents a flow of data, or a channel of communication with (at least conceptually) a writer at one end and a reader at the other. When you are working with terminal input and output, reading or writing files, or communicating through sockets in Java, you are using a stream of one type or another. So you can see the forest without being distracted by the trees, I'll start by summarizing the different types of streams.

#### Figure 8.1: The java.io package

`InputStream`/`OutputStream`

  Abstract classes that define the basic functionality for reading or writing an unstructured sequence of bytes. All other byte streams in Java are built on top of the basic `InputStream` and `OutputStream`.

`Reader`/`Writer`

  Abstract classes that define the basic functionality for reading or writing an unstructured sequence of characters. All other character streams in Java are built on top of `Reader` and `Writer`.

`InputStreamReader`/`OutputStreamWriter`

  "Bridge" classes that convert bytes to characters and vice versa.

`DataInputStream`/`DataOutputStream`

  Specialized stream filters that add the ability to read and write simple data types like numeric primitives and `String` objects.

`BufferedInputStream`/`BufferedOutputStream` /`BufferedReader`/`BufferedWriter`

  Specialized streams that incorporate buffering for additional efficiency.

`PrintWriter`

  A specialized character stream that makes it simple to print text.

`PipedInputStream`/`PipedOutputStream` /`PipedReader`/`PipedWriter`

  "Double-ended" streams that always occur in pairs. Data written into a `PipedOutputStream` or `PipedWriter` is read from its corresponding `PipedInputStream` or `PipedReader`.

`FileInputStream`/`FileOutputStream` /`FileReader`/`FileWriter`

  Implementations of `InputStream`, `OutputStream`, `Reader`, and `Writer` that read from and write to files on the local filesystem.

Streams in Java are one-way streets. The `java.io` input and output classes represent the ends of a simple stream, as shown in Figure 8.2. For bidirectional conversations, we use one of each type of stream.

#### Figure 8.2: Basic input and output stream functionality

`InputStream` and `OutputStream` are `abstract` classes that define the lowest-level interface for all byte streams. They contain methods for reading or writing an unstructured flow of byte-level data. Because these classes are abstract, you can never create a "pure" input or output stream. Java implements subclasses of these for activities like reading and writing files, and communicating with sockets. Because all byte streams inherit the structure of `InputStream` or `OutputStream`, the various kinds of byte streams can be used interchangeably. For example, a method often takes an `InputStream` as an argument. This means the method accepts any subclass of `InputStream`. Specialized types of streams can also be layered to provide higher-level functionality, such as buffering or handling larger data types.

In Java 1.1, new classes based around `Reader` and `Writer` were added to the `java.io` package. `Reader` and `Writer` are very much like `InputStream` and `OutputStream`, except that they deal with characters instead of bytes. As true character streams, these classes correctly handle Unicode characters, which was not always the case with the byte streams. However, some sort of bridge is needed between these character streams and the byte streams of physical devices like disks and networks. `InputStreamReader` and `OutputStreamWriter` are special classes that use an encoding scheme to translate between character and byte streams.

We'll discuss all of the interesting stream types in this section, with the exception of `FileInputStream`, `FileOutputStream`, `FileReader`, and `FileWriter`. We'll postpone the discussion of file streams until the next section, where we'll cover issues involved with accessing the filesystem in Java.

### Terminal I/O

The prototypical example of an `InputStream` object is the standard input of a Java application. Like `stdin` in C or `cin` in C++, this object reads data from the program's environment, which is usually a terminal window or a command pipe. The `java.lang.System` class, a general repository for system-related resources, provides a reference to standard input in the `static` variable `in`. `System` also provides objects for standard output and standard error in the `out` and `err` variables, respectively. The following example shows the correspondence:

    InputStream stdin = System.in;
    OutputStream stdout = System.out;
    OutputStream stderr = System.err;

This example hides the fact that `System.out` and `System.err` aren't really `OutputStream` objects, but more specialized and useful `PrintStream` objects. I'll explain these later, but for now we can reference `out` and `err` as `OutputStream` objects, since they are a kind of `OutputStream` by inheritance.

We can read a single byte at a time from standard input with the `InputStream`'s `read()` method. If you look closely at the API, you'll see that the `read()` method of the base `InputStream` class is actually an `abstract` method. What lies behind `System.in` is an implementation of `InputStream`, so it's valid to call `read()` for this stream:

    try {
        int val = System.in.read();
        ...
    }
    catch ( IOException e ) {
    }

As is the convention in C, `read()` provides a byte of information, but its return type is `int`. A return value of `-1` indicates a normal end of stream has been reached; you'll need to test for this condition when using the simple `read()` method. If an error occurs during the read, an `IOException` is thrown. All basic input and output stream commands can throw an `IOException`, so you should arrange to catch and handle them as appropriate.

To retrieve the value as a byte, perform the cast:

    byte b = (byte) val;

Of course, you'll need to check for the end-of-stream condition before you perform the cast. An overloaded form of `read()` fills a byte array with as much data as possible up to the limit of the array size and returns the number of bytes read:

    byte [] bity = new byte [1024];
    int got = System.in.read( bity );

We can also check the number of bytes available for reading on an `InputStream` with the `available()` method. Once we have that information, we can create an array of exactly the right size:

    int waiting = System.in.available();
    if ( waiting > 0 ) {
        byte [] data = new byte [ waiting ];
        System.in.read( data );
        ...
    }

`InputStream` provides the `skip()` method as a way of jumping over a number of bytes. Depending on the implementation of the stream and if you aren't interested in the intermediate data, skipping bytes may be more efficient than reading them. The `close()` method shuts down the stream and frees up any associated system resources. It's a good idea to close a stream when you are done using it.

### Character Streams

The `InputStream` and `OutputStream` subclasses of Java 1.0.2 included methods for reading and writing strings, but most of them operated by assuming that a sixteen-bit Unicode character was equivalent to an eight-bit byte in the stream. This only works for Latin-1 (ISO8859-1) characters, so the character stream classes `Reader` and `Writer` were introduced in Java 1.1. Two special classes, `InputStreamReader` and `OutputStreamWriter`, bridge the gap between the world of character streams and the world of byte streams. These are character streams that are wrapped around an underlying byte stream. An encoding scheme is used to convert between bytes and characters. An encoding scheme name can be specified in the constructor of `InputStreamReader` or `OutputStreamWriter`. Another constructor simply accepts the underlying stream and uses the system's default encoding scheme. For example, let's parse a human-readable string from the standard input into an integer. We'll assume that the bytes coming from `System.in` use the system's default encoding scheme.

    try {
        InputStreamReader converter = new InputStreamReader(System.in);
        BufferedReader in = new BufferedReader(converter);

        String text = in.readLine();
        int i = NumberFormat.getInstance().parse(text).intValue();
    }
    catch ( IOException e ) { }
    catch ( ParseException pe ) { }

First, we wrap an `InputStreamReader` around `System.in`. This object converts the incoming bytes of `System.in` to characters using the default encoding scheme. Then, we wrap a `BufferedReader` around the `InputStreamReader`. `BufferedReader` gives us the `readLine()` method, which we can use to retrieve a full line of text into a `String`. The string is then parsed into an integer using the techniques described in Chapter 7.

We could have programmed the previous example using only byte streams, and it would have worked for users in the United States, at least. So why go to the extra trouble of using character streams? Character streams were introduced in Java 1.1 to correctly support Unicode strings. Unicode was designed to support almost all of the written languages of the world. If you want to write a program that works in any part of the world, in any language, you definitely want to use streams that don't mangle Unicode.

So how do you decide when you need a byte stream and when you need a character stream? If you want to read or write character strings, use some variety of `Reader` or `Writer`. Otherwise a byte stream should suffice. Let's say, for example, that you want to read strings from a file that was written out by a Java 1.0.2 application. In this case you could simply create a `FileReader`, which will convert the bytes in the file to characters using the system's default encoding scheme. If you have a file in a specific encoding scheme, you can create an `InputStreamReader` with that encoding scheme and read characters from it. Another example comes from the Internet. Web servers serve files as byte streams. If you want to read Unicode strings from a file with a particular encoding scheme, you'll need an appropriate `InputStreamReader` wrapped around the socket's `InputStream`.

### Stream Wrappers

What if we want to do more than read and write a mess of bytes or characters? Many of the `InputStream`, `OutputStream`, `Reader`, and `Writer` classes wrap other streams and add new features. A filtered stream takes another stream in its constructor; it delegates calls to the underlying stream while doing some additional processing of its own.

In Java 1.0.2, all wrapper streams were subclasses of `FilterInputStream` and `FilterOutputStream`. The character stream classes introduced in Java 1.1 break this pattern, but they operate in the same way. For example, `BufferedInputStream` extends `FilterInputStream` in the byte world, but `BufferedReader` extends `Reader` in the character world. It doesn't really matter--both classes accept a stream in their constructor and perform buffering. Like the byte stream classes, the character stream classes include the abstract `FilterReader` and `FilterWriter` classes, which simply pass all method calls to an underlying stream.

The `FilterInputStream`, `FilterOutputStream`, `FilterReader`, and `FilterWriter` classes themselves aren't useful; they must be subclassed and specialized to create a new type of filtering operation. For example, specialized wrapper streams like `DataInputStream` and `DataOutputStream` provide additional methods for reading and writing primitive data types.

As we said, when you create an instance of a filtered stream, you specify another stream in the constructor. The specialized stream wraps an additional layer of functionality around the other stream, as shown in Figure 8.3. Because filtered streams themselves are subclasses of the fundamental stream types, filtered streams can be layered on top of each other to provide different combinations of features. For example, you could wrap a `PushbackReader` around a `LineNumberReader` that was wrapped around a `FileReader`.

#### Figure 8.3: Layered streams

#### Data streams

`DataInputStream` and `DataOutputStream` are filtered streams that let you read or write strings and primitive data types that comprise more than a single byte. `DataInputStream` and `DataOutputStream` implement the `DataInput` and `DataOutput` interfaces, respectively. These interfaces define the methods required for streams that read and write strings and Java primitive types in a machine-independent manner.

You can construct a `DataInputStream` from an `InputStream` and then use a method like `readDouble()` to read a primitive data type:

    DataInputStream dis = new DataInputStream( System.in );
    double d = dis.readDouble();

The above example wraps the standard input stream in a `DataInputStream` and uses it to read a double value. `readDouble()` reads bytes from the stream and constructs a `double` from them. All `DataInputStream` methods that read primitive types also read binary information.

The `DataOutputStream` class provides write methods that correspond to the read methods in `DataInputStream`. For example, `writeInt()` writes an integer in binary format to the underlying output stream.

The `readUTF()` and `writeUTF()` methods of `DataInputStream` and `DataOutputStream` read and write a Java `String` of Unicode characters using the UTF-8 "transformation format." UTF-8 is an ASCII-compatible encoding of Unicode characters commonly used for the transmission and storage of Unicode text.[1]

> [1] Check out the URL http://www.stonehand.com/unicode/standard/utf8.html for more information on UTF-8.

We can use a `DataInputStream` with any kind of input stream, whether it be from a file, a socket, or standard input. The same applies to using a `DataOutputStream`, or, for that matter, any other specialized streams in `java.io`.

#### Buffered streams

The `BufferedInputStream`, `BufferedOutputStream`, `BufferedReader`, and `BufferedWriter` classes add a data buffer of a specified size to the stream path. A buffer can increase efficiency by reducing the number of physical read or write operations that correspond to `read()` or `write()` method calls. You create a buffered stream with an appropriate input or output stream and a buffer size. Furthermore, you can wrap another stream around a buffered stream so that it benefits from the buffering. Here's a simple buffered input stream:

    BufferedInputStream bis = new BufferedInputStream(myInputStream, 4096);
    ...
    bis.read();

In this example, we specify a buffer size of 4096 bytes. If we leave off the size of the buffer in the constructor, a reasonably sized one is chosen for us. On our first call to `read()`, `bis` tries to fill the entire 4096-byte buffer with data. Thereafter, calls to `read()` retrieve data from the buffer until it's empty.

A `BufferedOutputStream` works in a similar way. Calls to `write()` store the data in a buffer; data is actually written only when the buffer fills up. You can also use the `flush()` method to wring out the contents of a `BufferedOutputStream` before the buffer is full.

Some input streams like `BufferedInputStream` support the ability to mark a location in the data and later reset the stream to that position. The `mark()` method sets the return point in the stream. It takes an integer value that specifies the number of bytes that can be read before the stream gives up and forgets about the mark. The `reset()` method returns the stream to the marked point; any data read after the call to `mark()` is read again.

This functionality is especially useful when you are reading the stream in a parser. You may occasionally fail to parse a structure and so must try something else. In this situation, you can have your parser generate an error (a homemade `ParseException`) and then reset the stream to the point before it began parsing the structure:

    BufferedInputStream input;
    ...
    try {
        input.mark( MAX_DATA_STRUCTURE_SIZE );
        return( parseDataStructure( input ) );
    }
    catch ( ParseException e ) {
        input.reset();
        ...
    }

The `BufferedReader` and `BufferedWriter` classes work just like their byte-based counterparts, but operate on characters instead of bytes.

#### Print streams

Another useful wrapper stream is `java.io.PrintWriter`. This class provides a suite of overloaded `print()` methods that turn their arguments into strings and push them out the stream. A complementary set of `println()` methods adds a newline to the end of the strings. `PrintWriter` is the more capable big brother of the `PrintStream` byte stream. `PrintWriter` is an unusual character stream because it can wrap either an `OutputStream` or another `Writer`. The `System.out` and `System.err` streams are `PrintStream` objects; you have already seen such streams strewn throughout this book:

    System.out.print("Hello world...\n");
    System.out.println("Hello world...");
    System.out.println( "The answer is: " + 17 );
    System.out.println( 3.14 );

In Java 1.1, the `PrintStream` class has been enhanced to translate characters to bytes using the system's default encoding scheme. Although `PrintStream` is not deprecated in Java 1.1, its constructors are. For all new development, use a `PrintWriter` instead of a `PrintStream`. Because a `PrintWriter` can wrap an `OutputStream`, the two classes are interchangeable.

When you create a `PrintWriter` object, you can pass an additional `boolean` value to the constructor. If this value is `true`, the `PrintWriter` automatically performs a `flush()` on the underlying `OutputStream` or `Writer` each time it sends a newline:

    boolean autoFlush = true;
    PrintWriter p = new PrintWriter( myOutputStream, autoFlush );

When this technique is used with a buffered output stream, it corresponds to the behavior of terminals that send data line by line.

Unlike methods in other stream classes, the methods of `PrintWriter` and `PrintStream` do not throw `IOException`s. Instead, if we are interested, we can check for errors with the `checkError()` method:

    System.out.println( reallyLongString );
    if ( System.out.checkError() )                // Uh oh

### Pipes

Normally, our applications are directly involved with one side of a given stream at a time. `PipedInputStream` and `PipedOutputStream` (or `PipedReader` and `PipedWriter`), however, let us create two sides of a stream and connect them together, as shown in Figure 8.4. This provides a stream of communication between threads, for example.

To create a pipe, we use both a `PipedInputStream` and a `PipedOutputStream`. We can simply choose a side and then construct the other side using the first as an argument:

#### Figure 8.4: Piped streams

    PipedInputStream pin = new PipedInputStream();
    PipedOutputStream pout = new PipedOutputStream( pin );

Alternatively :

    PipedOutputStream pout = new PipedOutputStream( );
    PipedInputStream pin = new PipedInputStream( pout );

In each of these examples, the effect is to produce an input stream, `pin`, and an output stream, `pout`, that are connected. Data written to `pout` can then be read by `pin`. It is also possible to create the `PipedInputStream` and the `PipedOutputStream` separately, and then connect them with the `connect()` method.

We can do exactly the same thing in the character-based world, using `PipedReader` and `PipedWriter` in place of `PipedInputStream` and `PipedOutputStream`.

Once the two ends of the pipe are connected, use the two streams as you would other input and output streams. You can use `read()` to read data from the `PipedInputStream` (or `PipedReader`) and `write()` to write data to the `PipedOutputStream` (or `PipedWriter`). If the internal buffer of the pipe fills up, the writer blocks and waits until more space is available. Conversely, if the pipe is empty, the reader blocks and waits until some data is available. Internally, the blocking is implemented with `wait()` and `notifyAll()`, as described in Chapter 6, Threads.

One advantage to using piped streams is that they provide stream functionality in our code, without compelling us to build new, specialized streams. For example, we can use pipes to create a simple logging facility for our application. We can send messages to the logging facility through an ordinary `PrintWriter`, and then it can do whatever processing or buffering is required before sending the messages off to their ultimate location. Because we are dealing with string messages, we use the character-based `PipedReader` and `PipedWriter` classes. The following example shows the skeleton of our logging facility:

    import java.io.*;

    class LoggerDaemon extends Thread {
        PipedReader in = new PipedReader();

        LoggerDaemon() {
            setDaemon( true );
            start();
        }

        public void run() {
            BufferedReader din = new BufferedReader( in );
            String s;

            try {
               while ( (s = din.readLine()) != null ) {
                    // process line of data
                    // ...
                }
            }
            catch (IOException e ) { }
        }

        PrintWriter getWriter() throws IOException {
            return new PrintWriter( new PipedWriter( in ) );
        }
    }

    class myApplication {
        public static void main ( String [] args ) throws IOException {
            PrintWriter out = new LoggerDaemon().getWriter();

            out.println("Application starting...");
            // ...
            out.println("Warning: does not compute!");
            // ...
        }
    }

`LoggerDaemon` is a daemon thread, so it will die when our application exits. `LoggerDaemon` reads strings from its end of the pipe, the `PipedReader` `in`. `LoggerDaemon` also provides a method, `getWriter()`, that returns a `PipedWriter` that is connected to its input stream. Simply create a new `LoggerDaemon` and fetch the output stream to begin sending messages.

In order to read strings with the `readLine()` method, `LoggerDaemon` wraps a `BufferedReader` around its `PipedReader`. For convenience, it also presents its `PipedWriter` as a `PrintWriter`, rather than a simple `Writer`.

One advantage of implementing `LoggerDaemon` with pipes is that we can log messages as easily as we write text to a terminal or any other stream. In other words, we can use all our normal tools and techniques. Another advantage is that the processing happens in another thread, so we can go about our business while the processing takes place.

There is nothing stopping us from connecting more than two piped streams. For example, we could chain multiple pipes together to perform a series of filtering operations.

### Strings to Streams and Back

The `StringReader` class is another useful stream class. The stream is created from a `String`; `StringReader` essentially wraps stream functionality around a `String`. Here's how to use a `StringReader`:

    String data = "There once was a man from Nantucket...";
    StringReader sr = new StringReader( data );

    char T = (char)sr.read();
    char h = (char)sr.read();
    char e = (char)sr.read();

Note that you will still have to catch `IOException`s thrown by some of the `StringReader`'s methods.

The `StringReader` class is useful when you want to read data in a `String` as if it were coming from a stream, such as a file, pipe, or socket. For example, suppose you create a parser that expects to read tokens from a stream. But you want to provide a method that also parses a big string. You can easily add one using `StringReader`.

Turning things around, the `StringWriter` class lets us write to a character string through an output stream. The internal string grows as necessary to accommodate the data. In the following example, we create a `StringWriter` and wrap it in a `PrintWriter` for convenience:

    StringWriter buffer = new StringWriter();
    PrintWriter out = new PrintWriter( buffer );

    out.println("A moose once bit my sister.");
    out.println("No, really!");

    String results = buffer.toString();

First we print a few lines to the output stream, to give it some data, then retrieve the results as a string with the `toString()` method. Alternately, we could get the results as a `StringBuffer` with the `getBuffer()` method.

The `StringWriter` class is useful if you want to capture the output of something that normally sends output to a stream, such as a file or the console. A `PrintWriter` wrapped around a `StringWriter` competes with `StringBuffer` as the easiest way to construct large strings piece by piece. While using a `StringBuffer` is more efficient, `PrintWriter` provides more functionality than the normal `append()` method used by `StringBuffer`.

### rot13InputStream

Before we leave streams, let's try our hand at making one of our own. I mentioned earlier that specialized stream wrappers are built on top of the `FilterInputStream` and `FilterOutputStream` classes. It's quite easy to create our own subclass of `FilterInputStream` that can be wrapped around other streams to add new functionality.

The following example, `rot13InputStream`, performs a rot13 operation on the bytes that it reads. rot13 is a trivial algorithm that shifts alphanumeric letters to make them not quite human-readable; it's cute because it's symmetric. That is, to "un-rot13" some text, simply rot13 it again. We'll use the `rot13InputStream` class again in the `crypt` protocol handler example in Chapter 9, Network Programming, so we've put the class in the `example.io` package to facilitate reuse. Here's our `rot13InputStream` class:

    package example.io;
    import java.io.*;

    public class rot13InputStream extends FilterInputStream {

        public rot13InputStream ( InputStream i ) {
            super( i );
        }

        public int read() throws IOException {
            return rot13( in.read() );
        }

        private int rot13 ( int c ) {
            if ( (c >= 'A') && (c <= 'Z') )            c=(((c-'A')+13)%26)+'A';        if ( (c >= 'a') && (c <= 'z') )
                c=(((c-'a')+13)%26)+'a';
            return c;
        } }

The `FilterInputStream` needs to be initialized with an `InputStream`; this is the stream to be filtered. We provide an appropriate constructor for the `rot13InputStream` class and invoke the parent constructor with a call to `super()`. `FilterInputStream` contains a protected instance variable, `in`, where it stores the stream reference and makes it available to the rest of our class.

The primary feature of a `FilterInputStream` is that it overrides the normal `InputStream` methods to delegate calls to the `InputStream` in the variable `in`. So, for instance, a call to `read()` simply turns around and calls `read()` on `in` to fetch a byte. An instance of `FilterInputStream` itself could be instantiated from an `InputStream`; it would pass its method calls on to that stream and serve as a pass-through filter. To make things interesting, we can override methods of the `FilterInputStream` class and do extra work on the data as it passes through.

In our example, we have overridden the `read()` method to fetch bytes from the underlying `InputStream`, `in`, and then perform the rot13 shift on the data before returning it. Note that the `rot13()` method shifts alphabetic characters, while simply passing all other values, including the end of stream value (`-1`). Our subclass now acts like a rot13 filter. All other normal functionality of an `InputStream`, like `skip()` and `available()` is unmodified, so calls to these methods are answered by the underlying `InputStream`.

Strictly speaking, `rot13InputStream` only works on an ASCII byte stream, since the underlying algorithm is based on the Roman alphabet. A more generalized character scrambling algorithm would have to be based on `FilterReader` to handle Unicode correctly.

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